Wishing you all a happy and prosperous Ethiopian New Year, Once again, it is our great pleasure to announce that the 2006 E.C. edition of 'Ethiopian Calendar with Primary Source Materials' is out and is ready for orders. As usual, this unique calendar contains educational content related to Ethiopian history and culture. That's why we call it 'Calendar with Aptitude' or 'Calendar with Attitude'. Here are samples of the rave reviews we have received for our past editions:
Reviews of last year's (first primary sources) edition:

“This year's calendar introduces users to notable primary sources. Anyone who is interested in Ethiopian history will find the calendar a wonderful document that educates and opens new venues for further research..[Publisher] effectively uses the pages of the calendar to provide a variety of sources that tell interesting stories about Ethiopia and Ethiopians. Indeed, the 2005 E.C. calendar is a wonderful piece of work and I invite fellow Ethiopians and friends of Ethiopia to get their own copies...” Ato Tewodros Abebe

“..Each month of the calendar includes a page-long story that focuses on a significant event or personality that is important in Ethiopian history. Subjects reflect a variety of backgrounds and time periods. Here is the perfect gift for an Ethiopian friend or a friend of Ethiopia!" Dr. Theodore M. Vestal, Professor Emeritus Oklahoma State University

"..It is a very [good]instrument that indicates an interesting event that has occurred in Ethiopian History during each month, in addition to the photos famous protagonists and their birthday. It shows the richness of Ethiopian society and culture as well as the diverse personalities that have represented its politics, arts, and many aspects of its makeup. I recommend it highly and because it useful at home and working place for its practical use and as a reference when some aspects of Ethiopian history and personalities are discussed." Ambassador Imru Zelleke
Reviews of past (focusing on biographies) editions:
“Ethiopian calendar…sprinkled with the biographies.. of notable Ethiopians in all spheres of life… (leaders of yesteryear, artists, scientists, etc.) who have rendered significant contributions to the progress and culture of our proud and historic nation. It also reminds one, of the various key holidays in Ethiopia; the calendar for each month is juxtaposed with Gregorian calendar for cross referencing, which is a useful aspect of the calendar.”Dr. Fekadu Fulas. Sioux City, Iowa

"..The Biographical Calendar …stands alone in its quality. Each month carries a marvelous biographical piece on one great Ethiopian, you wish there were more than 12 months per year!!..The calendar is a great piece of work that reminds us the many great lives in our Ethiopian past. It gives us an opportunity to talk to our kids about their work be it in literature, art and patriotism.” Dr. Araya Amsalu. Cincinnati, Ohio.

Last year's primary source materials range from historical speeches made by Emperor Haile Selassie or by Dr. Melaku Beyan etc..to transcripts of recorded voice correspondences between Emperor Menilik & Queen Victoria. From the letters of Alfred Ilg, the Swiss born advisor of Emperor Menelik to diary notes of two Americans who had been in Ethiopia at different times & participated in war and peaceful efforts. This year's edition will live up to its reputation and contains rarely seen or told narratives about events in Ethiopian history, most of them based on documents found in archives, libraries and museums. We believe that the primary source materials we have selected provide essential information about those events in Ethiopian history or the personalities we featured.

Orders can be placed by contacting the publisher at genaledc@gmail.com or adamou_g@yahoo.com Retail price is $12. We are offering a 20% group discount as far as 10 or more orders are placed from the group. In the near future, we hope to have a website with e-commerce capability so that those interested in obtaining the publication can place orders & make payment through credit card & paypal etc.

Blogger's Note:  
In honor of the late Professor Aklilu Lemma who was born in September 18, 1935, I am posting a reprint of a biographical profile of him that appeared in 'Ethiopian calendar with Biographies 2004 E.C. (2011-'12G.C.) edition.
Aklilu Lemma 1928-1989 EC (1935-1997)
World recognized scientist and international civil servant
On Meskerem 7, 1928 EC (September 18, 1935) in the town of Jijiga, Woizero Ayelech Lemma and Ato Bekele Woldeyes had a baby whom they named Aklilu. Information about his childhood or school years is scant.i When Aklilu joined University College of Addis Ababa, later known as Haile Selassie University, he studied Science. In 1960 he earned his Master‘s degree from the University of Wisconsin, and then a DSc from Johns Hopkins. As a doctoral student, he was already interested in bilharzia, and he studied the defense mechanisms of starfish and sea urchins.ii
Back home, one day in 1964, the young scientist observed an everyday scene: women washing clothes in a stream. They were using a common shrub, Endod or soapberry, which women in some parts of Ethiopia have used for laundry for generations. What surprised Aklilu was the scene of dead snails—carriers of bilharzia.
In an acceptance speech in the Swedish Parliament at the 1989 Right Livelihood Award, which he won along with his colleague at the Institute of Pathobiology, Dr. Legesse Wolde Yohannes, Aklilu explained how the discovery was made in the northern Ethiopian town of Adwa. "I observed," he said,

"that in areas downstream from where people were washing clothes with the Ethiopian soapberry, commonly known as Endod, there were more dead snails floating around than anywhere else (including areas where people were washing with commercial soap). Observing this phenomenon repeatedly, I collected some live snails from upstream and asked one of the women to put a bit of the Endod suds from her washbasin into the snail container. Shortly after, the snails shrank, passed a few bubbles of gas, bled and died."iii

In 1966, after much testing in the laboratory, Professor Aklilu presented his finding to a science forum. For Africa, where the disease schistosomiasis is common, the discovery of a low-cost and biodegradable snail-killing agent (molluscicide) represented a major breakthrough. In the meantime, Aklilu started a parasitology program at the medical college, which evolved to become Institute of Pathobiology. He also became the first Ethiopian dean of the Faculty of Science. iv
Then Aklilu spent two years at Stanford University working on the chemical properties of Endod and its potential applications to snail fever and other parasitic diseases. When the analysis finally isolated the chemical component, it was named Lemmatoxin in his honor.
Lemmatoxin has a controlling effect on several other vectors besides snails—mosquitos (malaria), copepods (Guinea worm) and Black flies (river blindness). With his research recognized, Aklilu's team conducted extensive field work using Lemmatoxin. Among 3,500 children aged one to six, incidence of the disease fell from 50 percent to 7 percent.v
The research on Endod, however, had many ups and downs. His colleague Dr. Legesse noted,:

"..When Aklilu first made this scientific discovery,..many outside Ethiopia (such as) the English came forward with suggestions of collaboration. Aklilu had the belief that it did not matter where the science was developed, so a sample was given to the Tropical Plant Products Institute. For the following years, 1967-68, they did not report anything, while we were turning out many publications, including that it was not toxic. On his way to the States, he stopped by the Tropical Plant Products Institute and asked them how their research was going.They told him it was going so well that they had decided to patent it before publishing anything. (Aklilu) did not let his anger show but established a patent in the States and through the Ethiopian Ambassador to the UK stopped the others' claim. After that, they stopped praising Endod and started defaming it."vi

Meanwhile, the Institute of Pathobilogy in Addis Ababa sought funding from the World Health Organization for agricultural production, field application, and evaluation of Endod in Ethiopia. However, WHO denied the request, saying that the earlier studies on Endod were not done in reputable laboratories.
In 1976, Professor Aklilu joined the U.N. in New York, serving first at the Office of Science and Technology, and later UNICEF. Yet, he never once neglected his 'wonder plant', carrying out projects on his own initiative.
Meanwhile, the chemistry of Endod was studied at the Stanford Research Institute in California. Later, the International Development Research Center in Canada published a finding that Endod berries were, indeed, non-toxic to humans, thus confirming Aklilu‘s finding.
From 1993 until his death, Dr. Aklilu, while at Johns Hopkins University, was involved in promoting indigenous capacity building in scientific research in areas of HIV/AIDS control in his home country and Uganda by establishing links between Johns Hopkins and their flagship universities.
Aklilu is also known for promoting science education and research in Ethiopia. He was the chief organizer and Vice Chairman of the committee for the establishment of National Scientific and Technical Research Council. He became Chief Advisor for Science and Technology to the government in the 1960′s and laid the groundwork for the present Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission.
Dr. Aklilu has three patents, five books and 60 scientific papers to his name. He has won many awards including the Haile Sellassie I Gold Medal and the 1989 Right Livelihood Award, considered an alternate to the Nobel Prize.
Professor Aklilu died on April 5, 1997 at the age of 62 and was buried in Ethiopia.
Sources:
i Excerpt http://www.nazret.com/directory/index.php?c=35 has of the official website: http://
www.aklilulemma.com which has no more presence on the web.
ii iv AKLILU, Lemma. In An African Biographical Dictionary.2006.
Acceptance Speech of Dr. Aklilu Lemma. The Right to Livelihood Award http://
www.rightlivelihood.org/aklilu_lemma_speech.html
iii v Dr. Aklilu Lemma - Ethiopia‘s Late Greatest Scientist. Addis Tribune, April 25, 1997.
PROF. AKLILU LEMMA http://www.ethiopianmillennium.com/science.html
Fekadu Fullas – The Fascinating Story of Endod, 2005. EEDN Discussion listserve

On November 2, 1930 (Tiqimt 23, 1923) Crown Prince Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia with the crown name Qedamawi Atse Haile Selassie (Emperor Haile Selassie I). Here are some pages from a document prepared for the coronation ceremony.

Mass rallies were held across countries and continents in solidarity with Ethiopians who were killed, beaten and terrorized by Saudi mobs & security forces. Unfortunately, Ethiopians can not held such mass rallies in front of Saudi Embassy in Ethiopia, because the current regime in Addis Ababa do not allow it. Those whose loved ones were killed, beaten or thrown to jail joined few hundreds protestors in front of Saudi Embassy but were forced to be dispersed after Federal Police sent by their own government beat them & sending some of the protestors to jail. Any other government would have allowed its own citizens to vent their outrage in peaceful manner and use this mass mobilization to pressure the Saudi government to do something about the atrocities. The ever insecure government aware of its failure in protecting its own citizens from such atrocities in Saudi Arabia & other middle eastern countries chose instead to do its own crackdown on protestors and deal with Saudi authorities under the radar.  Time will tell if that involves taking money from Saudi Arabia to repatriate Ethiopians 
The Ethiopian diaspora especially those who live or grew up in America, Europe, Australia even in Israel, South Korea etc did not need permission to come out in large number and expressed their dismay in what they saw and heard about the plight of their fellow citizens in Saudi Arabia.
The rallies mostly in front of Saudi Embassies or Consular Offices were impressive not only in number but in bringing different people with religious, ethnic background or political persuasions together. Even Eritreans participated in some of these rallies. Even though these rallies were unprecedented and impressive, I have mixed feeling about them.
On one hand, I am glad to see some members of our community including my friends getting involved in matters that goes beyond themselves, their families or houses of faith. These were people who were quick to say 'ine politika alwedim' with their twisted understanding of politics. Seeing them coming out in big number to show solidarity and to condemn the barbaric act against fellow citizens is encouraging.
On the other hand, I was disturbed by the selective moral outrage that I am witnessing among my friends and many well meaning members of our community.  If Ethiopians are beaten & thrown out to jail by their own government, why are we surprised/angered when other foreign governments or individuals ill treated our fellow citizens?  In terms of scale who committed the worst offenses? I wonder what would be our answer if those parents whose children were killed by security forces of the current regime during 2005 protests ask us how come we chose to ignore their pain & loss?
Based on track record, I also doubt if these periodic manifestations of outrage & staging rallies would have bigger impacts or bring long standing solutions. Only sustained campaign until demands are met can bring about changes and waging a sustained campaign requires skills. One way of developing such skills is learning the basic tenets of advocacy or learning from others who had made successful campaigns. For that to happen humility i.e. saying that I do not know, but I am ready to learn comes first. First of all such virtue is lacking in our community. Secondly, even if one expresses willingness, often what I hear is "it is good for long term but can not be solution for current crisis". My answer is the things you learn every step of the way would make you think of the solution differently than you had original thought. It is better to take the baby steps now, than dealing with crisis unprepared. We have seen the alternative. Ad hoc or quickly assembled periodical mass rallies, emotional speeches etc.. may make us feel good but have they made real impacts? Ask yourself, if some of us have developed our skills earlier, do you think the current rallies in front of Saudi Embassies would be conducted in such a way? Personally, I do not think so. Without going into details, it could have been waged differently. A skillful campaign would have worked out its demands (short term & large term) and based on that devise actions which escalate or grow in intensity starting from cordial meeting with Embassy officials, to various forms of rallies and direct action measures. Few points when considering the next step (sustained campaign) or long term solutions:

• Making rallies as individuals or pairs on rotating basis. But this could have been better if it was incorporated in the original rallies campaign plan with definite objective and demands.

• Once temporary measures are taken and some of the demands are met, working toward convening a meeting between community organizations and invited experts on migrants rights such as the person interviewed by Tadias in this article or Washington representatives of International Office of Migration (IOM), International labor Organization (ILO), UNHCR, UN office for Migration etc.. to learn about migrant workers rights and discuss things we can do to help them.

Blogger's Note: The following is largely based on biographical sketch of Leul-Ras Imru Haile Selassie that appeared in Ethiopian Calendar with biographies 2003 E.C. edition. The current edition which is on sale contains primary resource document related to Ras Imru. Click here to order this year's edition.
Imru Haile Selassie 1885-1972 E.C (1892-1980)
Leul-Ras (Prince-General), member of Ethiopian Nobility, Patriot of Italo-Ethiopian war, diplomat, reformist politician & writer.
 Imru Haile Selassie was born at Funyan Bira, Gursum district in Harargie Province on Hidar 15, 1885 E.C / Nov. 24, 1892 four months after the birth of his first cousin Lij (Prince) Tafari Mekonnen who would later become Emperor Haile Selassie. His mother Mezleqia died when he was a few months old. Not long after Imru‘s fourth birthday, he was sent to Ras (General) Makonnen, his mother‘s uncle, to be educated in his palace alongside his son Tafari.
In Ras Mekonnen‘s household Lij Imru received traditional education of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Later, he received formal education from Catholic Missionaries. Imru was about 13 years old when Ras Mekonnen died and the children from his palace were sent to Addis Ababa to continue their education in Emperor Menelik‘s palace. Later, when Menelik II School, the first modern secular school in the nation opened in 1908, Imru and Tafari completed their studies in just one year as they were enrolled in a special class created for boys from Harar because they had an advanced background from their education in Harar.In 1909 Imru accompanied seventeen-year-old Lij Tafari Makonnen when he was appointed governor of part of Sidamo Province. Imru was in turn appointed by Tafari to govern a subdistrict in his domain.In 1911 Imru followed Tafari to Harargie province where he was made governor bearing the title of Dejazmatch. There, too, Tafari gave Imru the title of Grazmatch and appointed him to govern Jarso district and later Jijiga district. In 1917 Imru was promoted to the rank of Dejazmach and appointed governor of Harar by then Prince-Regent Ras Tafari.Imru stayed in that post for 11 years and pursued progressive policies for political reform started by Ras Tafari. He brought Hakim Werqneh Eshete (a.k.a. Dr. Charles Martin) and Bejirond Tekle-Hawaryat, two European-educated intellectuals well known for their progressive ideas, to administer districts under him. Imru through their help instituted reforms such as judicial practice & taxation at the district level, then to the whole province. After Ras Tafari was crowned king in 1928, Imru was sent to Wello Province as governor. In the memoir which was published recently he recalled that his governance in Wello was not as smooth as that of Harargie. The restless province required use of significant military force to pacify it. Also, by building roads, bridges and schools, he was able to integrate the region into the central government.
&nbsp. In November 1932, he was promoted to Ras and made ruler of Gojjam Province.He set out to replicate in Gojam the modernisation and reform he had instituted in Harar and Wello. However, tradition was well-entrenched in Gojam, and his modernization efforts
to institute educational, legal and customs & taxation reforms were met with heavy resistance. Though he succeeded in establishing law & order through capital punishment as well as crackdown on local rebels and chieftains, he failed to institute land reform, largely
due to opposition from the Orthodox Church which had control over a vast portion of the
land in the province.
In 1935 Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia. From October 1935, Ras Imru commanded
his provincial Army on Shire front to lead a counterattack against the Italian invaders. His
early offense deep into the Italian rear threatened the Italian advance. Ultimately, Imru was
stopped and his army was destroyed by the use of poison gas dropped from the air.
In May 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Ras Imru as Prince Regent in his absence,
departing Ethiopia with his family to present the case of Ethiopia to the League of
Nations in Geneva. When Italian forces took Addis Ababa, Imru continued to resist
the Italians by moving with his forces to South western Ethiopia and making Gore,
Illubabor the ―seat of Ethiopian Government‖. When his position in Gore, became
untenable, he took his forces and retreated to the southeast. The Italians followed him
and surrounded his forces on the north bank of the Gojeb River. In the end Ras Imru
and his dwindling forces were forced to surrender in December 19, 1936. He was
taken to Italy and imprisoned on the Island of Ponza. Sources citing fellow resistant
fighter and inmate, Hadis Alemayehu, indicate that Italian officials offered Ras Imru
the return of his lands if he would recognize Italian rule, but he replied that estates
meant nothing to him so long as he was deprived of his country. He was later freed
by British forces upon the formal surrender of Italy in 1943.
Ras Imru‘s appointment as an Ambassador to the United States in 1947 where he attended the first General assembly of the United Nations and later from 1954 to 1959 as an Ambassador to India, kept him away from Ethiopia for much of the immediate post-war period. On returning home, with the title Leul Ras (Prince-General) Imru insisted
that his share of the lands awarded to him in Arsi province, be given to the resistant fighters who had fought under his command. Since then, land reform had become the cause-celebre of his later life which was followed by his son Mikael Imru the future Prime Minster. His liberal progressive views as well as the reformist and modernizing credentials he had built throughout his career had earned him respect & recognition even among those who were in opposition of the feudal monarchist regime.
The leaders of the failed coup d‘etat attempt in 1960 made radio announcement that they designate Leul-Ras Imru to be appointed as a Prime Minister. He did not accept the appointment and he had attempted to prevent bloodshed by talking to General Mengistu and his brother Germame Neway, leaders of the coup attempt with whom he was in good terms. Even the student movement leaders who led urban based ptotest against Haile Selassie‘s regime in the 1960s as well as the military Junta
who succeeded to overthrow the Emperor in mid 70s looked Leul-Ras Imru with high
regard. When he died on Nehase 11, 1972E.C. (August 15, 1980) his funeral was declared
a state funeral by the Military regime.
This biographical sketch is compiled from the following sources:
Imru Haile Selassie: From Wikipedia the Online Encyclopedia.
Molvaer, R. (1997) – Black Lions: The Creative Lives of Modern Ethiopian Literary Giants. Lawrenceville:
NJ, Red Sea Press, 1997.

Blogger's Note:This guest blog entry is by former Ambassador Imru Zelleke. Ambassador Imru served as Ethiopia's Ambassador and Minister Plenipotentiary to France and Germany during Emperor Haile Selassie's government.  
THE FUTURE IS IN OUR HANDS[by] Imru Zelleke. December 2013
The high fever that has spread the all over the Diaspora seems to have simmered down to a tolerable level. Most of refugees in Saudi Arabia have been repatriated home and the few left will get back soon. Those still in jeopardy are the ones under care of the UNHCR in Yemen, for whom a permanent residence is to be found. Otherwise Ethiopians refugees are in dire and precarious conditions in Middle East and African countries where they are abused and often killed. The refugees that have returned seem to have fallen from the frying pan into the hot brazier. It is said that upon arrival home whatever processions (money, jewelry, valuable items) they have manage to save are confiscated by the regime, and they are forced to go back to their Kilil of origin; places where they run away from to begin with. The problem has evidently moved from Saudi Arabia back to Ethiopia their home land.
Without indulging into a lengthy and verbose discourse it should be obvious that the core of the problem is at Home in Ethiopia. People living in peace and freedom in their own country do not migrate unless they are subject to extremely unfavorable conditions at home. Ethiopians love their country and are not traditionally migrants, it is only in the last four decades of the post-revolutionary era that such mass migration has been occurring. Moreover, Ethiopia has presently the highest brain drain in the world. This trend will certainly continue as long as the coercive ethnic dictatorship at home is not removed and replaced by an all embracing national democratic system of governance. At the cost of many precious lives and resources, attempts to establish a government based on democracy and freedom have been many throughout the years. Alas, all have failed ignominiously leaving in their wake a people deprived of freedom, basic rights reduced to beggary and mendacity in their own land. We all know the degradation and humiliation that our society is subjected to, yet we don’t seem to react as we should against such perfidy; but for making long winded statements and pursuing a plethora of people and political groups who so far have led us to nowhere. We are ninety million man and women, the ruling gang count maybe a few thousand at the center, are they really invincible? No! their strength is our weakness and incoherent attitude towards our own existence. The ordinary people in Ethiopia have realized a long time ago that their fate is in their hands, they have risen and demonstrated more than once their patriotism and ultimate desire for freedom and justice. It is time to give them a helping hand, free of ulterior motifs. Actually they don’t even need us, all the resources required are available at home.
This said, we in the Diaspora that enjoy unlimited economic and political resources, could accelerate the process and bring about peace and a promising future to our brethren in Ethiopia. We have all the human and materiel means in our hands, let’s abandon all these squabbles and divisions amongst ourselves and make a common front to liberate the country from the scourge that is destroying it. Let’s make a real brotherly effort for an ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE. The high spirit of patriotism and indignation that has risen amongst the Diaspora, offers the opportunity to form a broad national political movement that will help install a genuine democracy in Ethiopia. For my part I am willing to assist and help a truly made effort to realize this goal. If we fail our people in this noble endeavor, it we will be a disavowal of our own humanity for which future generations will not forgive us. Respectfully

I hope you had a great start of the holiday season. I have written the following in reaction to a thread of discussion in an online African Diaspora discussion forum. It is re-posted here with some modification.  I refrained from posting what others in the online discussion forum wrote without getting their authorization but the underlying topic was what was stated in the following articles.

http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2007-03-18/news/0703180344_1_black-immigrants-high-achieving-immigrants-biracial-couples

 http://www.theroot.com/articles/culture/2009/06/black_immigrants_overrepresented_in_the_ivy_league.html


In graduate school, I wrote a paper which gave an overview of recent immigration from Africa and its impact on U.S. in general and on Maryland in particular. In the paper I cited a study which also affirmed that Black immigrants from Africa or the Caribbean are the most educated, taking into account that majority of them have completed high school, significant percentage of them have some college education and also some have degrees (Bachelor's, Masters even PhDs).  This was in the 1990s before the H1B visa program was introduced in the U.S. and many Asian (Indian & Chinese mainly) with advanced degrees such as computer programmers, engineers etc. started arriving in the U.S., making that immigrant group the most educated. Before those Asian professionals started arriving in the U.S., the largest group of Asian immigrants were the 'Boat People' who arrived in the 80s from Vietnam Cambodia & Laos region and which were mostly from rural background with little education like Latino immigrants from Central America region.
The studies I cited in the paper also illustrate one disturbing fact
about recent Black (African/Caribbean) immigrant community group. This is the only group that shows negative inter-generational mobility according to these studies. Sociologists often  notice positive inter-generational mobility when they study a certain segment of society through certain time period. What that means in short is if large members of the first generation are for example illiterate or with little education, and the second or subsequent generations are educated even to a level of completing school, that by itself shows a positive trajectory of inter-generational mobility. Unfortunately according to some studies, the second generation or kids born to African/Black immigrants did not attain the education level their first generation parents had, hence the negative trend. By the way, when they say members of the first generation are educated it does not mean that they are employed in the U.S. according to their higher education. The studies highlight the problems such as dropping out before completing high school or not joining colleges preferring instead to take lower paying jobs among majority members of second generation African/black immigrants. They offered some explanations why this phenomena is happening. The existence of distinct or lack thereof such identity (how the young generation see themselves) is one of the explanations given among other reasons.


Yes, as the articles cited above indicate, from all minority students who are admitted to Ivy League colleges, 50 percent or more are kids born to African/Caribbean parents. A 2007 report show that "African students constituted nearly 40 percent of the black students admitted to Ivy League schools."
Also there is some evidence that kids with Black African/Caribbean immigrants perform academically at K12 level as good as the levels achieved by White and Asians students. By the way, I support the collection of such data in schools with those important breakdowns within racial backgrounds. However, as I said earlier, majority of kids born to African/Caribbean immigrant parents do not make it to colleges, some even not completing schools. We just have to look around to members of our extended family to see this ugly trend. How many kids born to Ethiopian parents we know who have joined the low paying work force right after high school or even before finishing high school? I think the negative inter-generational mobility is un-natural and we Ethiopians and the larger African/Caribbean community should make efforts towards reversing this unnatural trend by giving special attention to our kids lives.

Blogger's Note:
This guest blog entry is by former Ambassador Imru Zelleke. Ambassador Imru served as Ethiopia's Ambassador and Minister Plenipotentiary to France and Germany during Emperor Haile Selassie's government. 

Blogger's Note:The following two entries are related to a discussion which started in facebook about Emperor Menelik's fluency in French and other European Language. During the discussion I promised to post in this blog what foreign visitors who had been to Ethiopia and met Emperor Menelik had said about the Emperor.  This testimonial by William H. Ellis aka Guillermo Enrique Ellesio was from an excerpt of a book presented at a conference called by CLEA at Stanford University on 31 August 2002 with a title:  A Page From a Century of Ethiopia-United States RelationsBy Professor Negussay Ayele. Unfortunately no photograph of William H. Ellis was found until now. His biography can be found at the following site from Texas Historical Association: http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fel32




...the first direct quasi diplomatic contacts with Ethiopia were initiated by Diaspora Africans in the Americas. It is of symbolic significance that the initiative to make contact with Ethiopia, the country which was victorious over Italy in Africa, was by envoy Benito Sylvain of Haiti, a country that defeated Napoleon’s army in the Western hemisphere. The next person to embark on an informal track of private commercial cum diplomatic visit to Ethiopia was a Cuban-Mexican-African American in the person of William H. Ellis (a.k.a. Guillaume Enriques Ellesio) from Texas. He was escorted to Ethiopia and introduced to Emperor Menyelek by Benito Sylvain. Mr Ellis, nicknamed ‘the Moor” by some, was a Wall Street tycoon of sorts who hobnobbed with the likes of steel magnet Andrew Carnegie and gun manufacturer Henry Hotchkiss. He was a dapper, flamboyant bon vivant and a self-made diplomat. He read whatever books he could find (US$3000 dollars worth, he said) on Ethiopia before he embarked on his eventful trip and audience with Emperor Menyelek in the Fall of 1903. Although peppered with generous dashes of hyperbole, Mr. Ellis’s renditions about his stay and accomplishments in Ethiopia provide interesting perspectives on the Emperor and Ethiopia.

Posted on MediaETHIOPIA on December 27, 2002. http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Views/NegussayAyele_on_EthiopiaAmerica.htm

Who knew Andrei Sakharov the world famous nuclear scientist and soviet political dissident in the 1980s had Ethiopian ancestry? I heard this fascinating link from none other than a family member which I happened to meet and talked briefly last week during an event held in U.S. Congress building to celebrate winners of Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought. Actually, I had interesting conversations with some political personalities, famous journalists and human right activists that day. Perhaps, I will talk about that some time in the future. But for today, I would focus on this interesting news for me or for many others.
For many of us this might not be the first time we hear of the historic inter-marriages between Ethiopians and people of slavic origin. I am sure quite a number of Ethiopians/Eritreans as well as Russians/Ukrainians or slavic people know that the great 18th century Russian poet Alexander Pushkin has Ethiopian/Eritrean root. If not broadly known like that of Pushkin's, the brief story of the multi-talented British actor, playwright, director & novelist Sir Peter Ustinov having a Russian aristocracy lineage on his father side and Ethiopian ancestry on his mother side was broadcasted in this Frontline segment.  Even though the segment put his lineage to one of Emperor Theodore's daughters, serious scholarly work done later by Toby Berger Holtz trace Sir Ustinov's Ethiopian lineage to one Magdalena who was a daughter of an Ethiopian woman, Wolete Selassie aka Katarina and Moritz Hall, (Polish-Russian former soldier of the Russian Imperial Army who was with European missionaries coerced into manufacturing cannon at Gaffat, near Debra Tabor by Emperor Tewodros). 
In the past I have also written in this blog the story of Mishka Babichef who was one of the first trained pilots of Ethiopia and who was a son of Count Babicheff of Russia and of an Ethiopian mother. Here is the link to that story.
But the famous Russian nuclear scientist and Soviet-time dissident having an Ethiopian ancestry, that was unheard of and big news to me. I don't know if this information is available somewhere. If not this can be considered as breaking news. I have tried to find some written sources to validate what I was told. So far the sources I have looked including shortened version of Andrei Sakharov's biography have nothing to say about his Ethiopian ancestry.  For those who do not know who Andrei Sakharov is, read his biography here in brief:

Andrei Sakharov and his son Dima (1970)

In short he was Russian nuclear physicist and human rights advocate. in the 1950s, he worked with other scientists to develop the Soviet Union's first hydrogen bomb. Decade later Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work and became politically active. He became an outspoken critic of the nuclear arms race and of Soviet repression. In 1975, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for peace. He and his wife Elena Bonner were later exiled to Siberia. They were released in 1986 and returned to Moscow. Elected to the Congress of People's Deputies in April 1989. He died months later in December 1989 at the age of 68.
Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696-1781)
 There are controversies as to his birth place and speculations as to how the young Abraham ended up in Constantinople (present day Istanbul) or eventually in Saint Petersburg at the Russian Czar, Peter the Great's palace. I am aware of the latest writing/literature by Cameroonian author tracing the origin of Abraham(Ibrahim) Gannibal to Longo region in Cameroon. Until further studies (backed by DNA tracing) provide conclusive evidence, I will stick to what the world have known for long that Abaraham Hannibal was born around Marab River in Ethiopia (to be precise present day Eritrea) . With regards to how the Eight year old Abraham  made it to Constantionople, Eritrean scholar Solomon G/Giorgis citing other sources including Professor Pankhurst asserts that Abraham and his sister were abducted by Ottoman Turks when Ottoman forces defeated forces led by their local chieftain father. Same source wrote that Abraham's sister died during the sea voyage to Constantinople. According to various sources, Abraham stayed for about a year in Constantinople in the service of the Sultan's household until he was taken to Russia. Despite the widely held belief that he went to Russia as a slave, there are different interpretations of the circumstance he went to Russia. Some sources indicate that he was sold to the Russian Czar by the Turkish Sultan while other sources say he was given as a tribute to the Russian Czar during his visit to Constantinople. There are other sources which indicated that it was the Russian Ambassador in Istanbul/Constantinople, one Count Tolstoy (the great grandfather of another Russian literary giant Leo Tolstoy) who sent the young Abraham to Russia.
In any case, in Russia the young man was baptized as Abraham Petrovic with the Czar himself as his Godfather. In the beginning, Abraham served as a palace page, valet and secretary to Peter the Great. In 1716, when Peter the Great visited France, he took Abraham along with him as a member of his entourage. Abraham was left behind in France to enroll in a military college. It is there where he adopted the name Hannibal after the legendary Carthage ruler and African military genius who defeated the mighty Romans.  He studied engineering specifically "military fortification and explosives" and participated as a volunteer for the French side in the war between Spain and France. He resumed his engineering study after the war and upon graduation, the Czar wanted Abraham to return to Russia soon. Abraham stayed in France giving excuses but eventually returned to Russia in 1725.  In a way this part of Abraham Hannibal's story reminded me the story of Fitawrari TekleMariam Teklehawaryat who was also adopted by Russian aristocrat family and who also chose to become a military cadet in Military academies first in Russia then in France. Could the young Teklemarian be influenced by the story of Abraham who he may have heard that time from members of the Russian aristocratic family to have chosen such a military career? I would say so. Unfortunately, his superb autobiography that I read recently and enjoyed immensely say nothing about this possible influence.  
Upon returning to Russia and in the coming years and decades, Abraham  had become a respected military engineer, who was promoted under successive rulers gradually rising to the rank of General

Aleksander Pushkin

and lived on into the reign of Catherine the Great.  He also married members of the aristocratic family and had 11 children altogether from his two wives. One of his sons (the third from the his marriage to his 2nd wife Christine von Schöberg) Osip Abramovic was the grandfather to the giant in Russian literature, the poet Alexander Pushkin.  (To see the family tree follow this link ).
Whether another Russian giant Andrei Sakharov is a descendant of Osip Abramovic or of another child of General Abraham Petrovic Hannibal is a puzzle to solve for a history buff like me. This says this is not the end of the story. I am excited by the challenge to dig on more on this matter. 

ps. Some members of the Britsh Aristocracy such as Natalian Grosvenor, the Duchess of Westminister and George Mountbatten, fourth Marquess of Milford Haven also trace their family lineage to General Abraham Hannibal.

Sources:
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/blackeuro/pushkinback.html
http://www.meadna.com/business page/lela pages/Abrahame Hannibalpage.htm
http://ganniba.blogspot.com/2013/04/gannibal-is-een-fascinerende-en.html

 

 

Blogger’s Note:The following diary entries by Colonel Henry Clay Derrick describing the battle of Goura was originally published in the 2005 edition of Ethiopian Calendar with primary resource materials. To my knowledge this is the first time the partial texts from the diary are available online. 

Introductory Note
Ismael Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan from 1863 to 1879, sought to conquer the entire Nile basin and put it under Egyptian rule. He sent mili-tary expeditions to Ethiopia as far south as Lake Victoria. In 1875 Egyptian troops, led by European and American officers, advanced into the mountainous regions around Ad-wa. There, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Yohannes soundly defeated the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet.
Angered by the defeat of his army, the Khedive sent another, larger military ex-pedition under the command of Prince Ratib Pasha into Ethiopia. The invading army was composed of Egyptian soldiers and a mixture of commanders including veterans of the American Civil War, European mercenaries, and high-ranking Egyptians. With the help of the Ethiopian governor of Hamasein (a province where present day Asmara is located), who switched sides to fight for the Egyptians, the Khedive’s troops advanced to Goura 40 miles to the south and built a fort. On March 7, 1876, Emperor Yohannes’ forces en-gaged the Egyptians in battle for three days. In the end, Ethiopian forces stormed the fort killing many and taking large numbers of prisoners. That defeat ended the Khedive’s ambition to invade Ethiopia. A young Ethiopian warrior, Alula Engida, displayed such val-or in the battles at Gundet and Goura that he was given the title Ras (General). Ras Alu-la later would be an acclaimed hero at the Battle of Adwa.
The diary of Lt. Colonel Henry Clay Derrick, a former Confederate Army officer during the American Civil War who later served as an engineer in the Egyptian Army, describes the battle that started at the Kayakhor encampment and ended with the storming of Fort Goura. G. Adugna/T. Vestal


“Tuesday March 7th, 1876
I was ordered to place a Battalion on the hill to hold a point on our line. I went ahead towards Kiya-Khor, and the fight soon opened with artillery. The right gave way and the men fell back, firing as they went. Soon the retreat towards the Fort became general, and though the men were several times partially rallied and formed, they were as often broken again by the mad rush of the Cavalry to the rear. Finding it hopeless to strive anymore against the rout, I joined the retreating columns and made my way with others to the Fort. Our loss is unknown: many of the wounded have been coming in all evening. A black day for the Egyptian Army; but if the men will only stand firm they can hold this Fort.”
[The following entry has no date but is believed to have been written later in March, 1876]
“In vain our shells and rockets ploughed through their dense masses, making frightful carcasses of what were before lithe and active savages; twice or thrice repulsed by the withering fire on their front they again press on. The wild hordes drove back the brave men who held the right and victory and entering by the rear butchered the cannoneers at the guns. Pursued by the horde of elated savages, the retreat soon became a rout and then a butchery...”

“Wednesday, March 8th.
A good many Abyssinians came to our old deserted camp to plunder and steal tents; but I must con-fess that they displayed great bravery and coolness under fire. Several sorties were made on them, which drove them off. Heard from K. Khor by signal that the enemy made two attacks there today and were repulsed each time: also heard from wounded men who came in, that several Battalions had
gone to the mountains instead of coming to the Fort, and forming square fought until their ammunition was expended when they surrendered. In this way we must have lost of the men who are missing –say 5000. A shameful termination to what might have been so easily been rendered a glorious victory by an ordinary amount of firmness and discipline in the troops and efficiency in the officers and Commander. If the troops from K.K. had come last night we might this morning, by attacking the King’s camp at daybreak have redeemed the honor of the Army lost on yesterday.”

“Thursday, March 9th.
The enemy only fired 5 or 6 shots with his cannon today and none since. Why? Is he saving his artillery ammunition for the defence of Adua?...”

“Friday, March 10th.
We went to the old camp of King John to see if we could find any of our missing friends. The sight there were dreadful beyond the power of language to describe. The whole plain was covered with the dead and dying victim of Kassa’s brutality, stripped and violated with every conceivable indignity; their bodies burned with fire, and stoned and clubbed and hacked with swords and pierced with lances. The supplicating cries of the wounded for water and for succor were enough to appall the stoutest heart.”

“March 17th
My opinions upon the consequences resulting from the late engagement and the course to be pursued in the future.
I think it is impossible to continue the campaign aggressively because we have lost heavily in men, ammunition, arms, guns, and means of transportation; and our troops are thoroughly demoralized.
Having allowed the enemy to escape, what remains for us to do? To hold our ground, let the frontier line be selected, making Goura to Kiya-Khor one point; therein immediately erect strong forts and hold the country they embrace. The Abyssinians cannot take them if defended; and behind the walls of a good fort our soldiers will fight if anywhere.”
Source: Derrick, Henry C. Diary. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. Photos: Battle of Fort Gura (1884) from Travelers in the Middle East Archive (TIMEA).http://hdl.handle.net/1911/21526; Plan of Northern Abyssinia from Egypt and Abyssinia. By W.M. Dye.1988.

Blogger's Note:
This is a reprint from Miyazia (April-May) page of Ethiopian Calendar with primary source materials 2005 E.C. edition. It featured the poem 'Ethiopia, thou Land of Our Fathers' written by Rabbi Arnold Josiah Ford & E. Burrell which was adopted by Marcus Garvey’s organization, The United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) as the universal anthem of the Black race. It also contained brief biographical sketches of Rabbi Ford and of his wife Ms. Mignon Inniss Ford, the founder of Princess Zenebeworq coeducational boarding school in Ethiopia. Bonne lecture (enjoy reading).


I
Ethiopia, thou land of our fathers,
Thou land where the gods loved to be,
As storm cloud at night suddenly gathers
Our armies come rushing to thee.
We must in the fight be victorious
When swords are thrust outward to gleam;
For us will the victory be glorious
When led by the Red, Black and Green.
CHORUS - Advance, advance to victory,
Let Africa be free;
Advance to meet the foe
With the might
Of the Red, the Black and the Green.

II
Ethiopia, the tyrant's falling,
Who smote thee upon thy knees,
And thy children are lustily calling
From over the distant seas.
Jehovah, the Great One has heard us,
Has noted our sighs and our tears,
With His spirit of Love he has stirred us
To be One through the coming years.
CHORUS—Advance, advance, etc.

III
O Jehovah, thou God of the ages
Grant unto our sons that lead
The wisdom Thou gave to Thy sages
When Israel was sore in need.
Thy voice thro' the dim past has spoken,
Ethiopia shall stretch forth her hand,
By Thee shall all fetters be broken,
And Heav'n bless our dear fatherland.
CHORUS-Advance, advance to victory,

Arnold Josiah Ford (23 Apr. 1877-16 Sept. 1935) one of the writers of this poem & music composer of the Anthem was a Barbados-born Black nationalist who studied Music in England & took a job teaching music in Harlem New York city before immigrating to Ethiopia in the 1930s . He also studied Hebrew and the Talmud and Arabic and the Quran under Egyptian teachers. He founded the Beth B’Nai Abraham Synagogue for Aethiopian (Orthodox) Jews in America in 1924 and served as Rabbi for six years. He was also chief musician & organizer of the Marcus Garvey led United Negro Improvement Association. He met & developed close ties with Ethiopian delegates & luminaries such as Kentiba Ge-bru and Blaten Geta Hiruy. Responding to the Ethiopian call for assistance led by Dr. Melaku Beyan and Hakim Worqneh (a.k.a Dr. Martin) Rabbi Ford immigrated to Ethiopia in 1930. He married Mignon Ford, one of the educators he recruited to immigratie to Ethi-opia and died five years after settling in Ethiopia
Mignon Inniss Ford (19 Nov. 1905-15 Jan. 1995) was a Barbados-born educator liv-ing in New York city before she was recruited to emigrate to Ethiopia in the 1930s. Soon after her arrival in Ethiopia she married Arnold Ford. In 1935 when Fascist Italian forces were about to take over Ethiopia she promised her dying husband that she would not abandon Ethiopia and she cast her destiny with her Ethiopian brothers & sisters. When Ital-ian occupying forces left defeated and Ethiopia gained her independence in 1941, Mrs. Ford opened the first coeducational boarding school in the country, the Beit Aurieal School which was later renamed Princess Zenebe Worq School. The school underwent several name changes over the years and is now named after its founder “The Mignon Inniss Ford Memorial Kindergarten and Elementary Public School.” She successfully provided leader-ship to the school for many years until her retirement a few years before her death in 1995.
The Ford legacy of bridge building between African-Americans, Afro-Caribbeans and Ethiopians still exists and is being kept alive through the activities of The Mignon Inniss Ford Foundation.  
G. Adugna /T. Vestal

Emperor Menelik’s Proclamation for Adwa campaign
Editor’s Note:In 1896, the recently united Kingdom of Italy joined other European nations seeking to establish colonies abroad in the so-called “scramble for Africa.” The Italians’ primary target on the continent was bounteous Ethiopia, a prized land unclaimed by other colonial powers and adjacent to the Italian colony of Eritrea. Italian leaders dreamed of a second Roman Empire stretching from the Alps to the Equator, and it was assumed that a show of military might would quickly bring "barbarian" lands and riches into an Africa Orientale Italiana. The Italian dream turned into a night-mare, however, in the epic Battle of Adwa that pitted the largest European army ever assembled in Africa up until that time against a mighty array of Ethiopian warriors led by Emperor Menelik. The Italians were soundly defeated by the forces of Greater Ethiopia in perhaps the greatest victory of an African over a European force since the time of Hannibal. The battle put Ethiopia on the map of the modern world and made that country a beacon of hope for oppressed people everywhere.  T. Vestal



At this time an enemy has crossed our God-given seashore boundaries with the aim of destroying our country and alter-ing our religion. So far, I had been somewhat lax in my response to such incursions because of the plague that has consumed animals and the famine that has exhausted our people. The enemy has taken advantage of our inactivity and has penetrating like a mole deeper & deeper inside our land.
But now, with God as my shield, I shall not surrender my land to the enemy. O people of my land, I do not think that I have been unjust to you heretofore, and neither have you failed me. Now I ask all of you who are able-bodied to help me with your strength.
If you are physically infirm, give your moral support for the sake of your children, your wife, and your faith. But if you cheat and stay behind when you could have volunteered in this campaign, be forewarned that you have chosen to pick a quarrel with me, in which case I will come back to settle the quarrel. I swear in the name of the Virgin Mary that I shall entertain no intercession on this matter. As my campaign commences in October, I shall expect to meet organized volunteers from Showa by the middle of October in Wara Ilu.
September 1895.
Unofficial translation by Paulos Milkias & Getachew Metaferia from The Battle of Adwa: Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism. Algora Books, 2005

November 2 (Tiqimt 23) in Ethiopian history:

On November 2, 1930 (Tiqimt 23, 1923) Crown Prince Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned Neguse-Negest (Emperor) of Ethiopia with the crown name Qedamawi Atse Haile Selassie (Emperor Haile Selassie I). In the past, I have posted the brochure which contained the coronation program schedule and which indicated the protocol as to which cabinet member is to accompany which foreign dignitary. For those who are interested in primary source materials, here is another document related to the event: one of the official notices sent to Heads of States of countries (in this case to the President of Bolivian Republic).
Finally check out the video showing part of the coronation ceremony and which was posted to the Internet (YouTube) since my last posting.

Dr. Fekadu Fullas

Minerals are essential substances that are also found in the human body. They are ingested as food supplements to enhance health. They are also consumed for disease preventative reasons. In the affluent West, the proliferation of dietary mineral supplements in the market is noteworthy. A good number of them include mineral/vitamin combinations. Chromium, copper, manganese, iron, and zinc products are some of the supplements that are widely used in the West for health benefits.

Historically, a number of mineral substances have been used in Ethiopian traditional medicine, either by themselves or in conjunction (by admixing) with medicinal herbs. It has been recorded that during the various Ethiopian historical periods many mineral substances were used in traditional healthcare; 150 minerals, each during the Axumite Kingdom (7th-11th C) and the Zagwie Dynasty (11th-13th C); 140, during the Gondar Kingdom (1636-1865); 200, during the period covering the reigns of King Libine dingil to King Hailemelekot (1540-1870); 130, during the reign of Emperor Menelik II over a hundred years ago; 90, during King Hailemelekot through Emperor Haile Selassie I (1870-1973).

More recently, results of surveys which were published in the 1980's (Abebe, 1984, 1986) in Gondar area, northwestern Ethiopia, indicated that 4 to 6 per cent of the traditional prescriptions contained minerals as ingredients of multi-component (herbs, animals) preparations. The most common mineral substance was found to be the common salt (sodium chloride). Abebe and Ayehu (1993) have found that minerals accounted for about 2% of the traditional remedies they recorded from the northern parts of Ethiopia.

There is no sufficient study conducted to support the use of many of the minerals in traditional Ethiopian healthcare. If fact, most of them can potentially be toxic. However, some of the uses may have scientific rationale behind their purported effects. This short article attempts to summarize the application of a few minerals in Ethiopian indigenous healthcare system, followed by comments at the end.

Alum (Aluminum sulfate)---Amarigna (Am): Sheb: This mineral has been used to treat wound in the mouth. It has also been applied in the eyes after mixing with lime juice.

Copper sulfate---Am: Kibre semay: After mixing with other plants, copper sulfate has been used for a number of medical problems. It has been used in this manner to treat eye problems, wounds, and mitch (a generic term perhaps designating sunstroke, or conditions caused by excessive exposure to sun). Copper sulfate is also used by itself for trichiasis.

Dross---Am: Ye' biret ar: Mixed with other plants, it is used for enuresis (involuntary loss of urine), venereal diseases and syphilis. It also finds application in the treatment of eczema (Am: chife) and vitiligo (Am: lemts).

Galena (Lead or lead sulfide)----Am: Shir kul: Galena has been used in traditional medicine in Ethiopia for eye problems, as a vulnerary (for wound and inflammation treatment), for prosperity and acquiring money !

Gold----Am: Worq: Traditionally, gold has been used for prosperity and acquiring money (interesting, considering the fact that gold is itself of high value).

Mercury (as a sublimate)----Am: Bazuqa: It is used in vapor baths for the treatment of syphilis----the treatment is called wesheba in Amarigna. In the 1880's, wesheba (as mercuric sulfide) was common in Tigre.

Sapphire---vernacular name: Sihn anfar; Shim anfar: Mixed with other plants, sapphire has been used for hemorrhoids and wounds.

Sulfur---Am: Dign: It has been used to facilitate the contraction of the uterus (as an oxytocic agent) during child birth by direct fumigation of the female organ with sulfur vapor. After mixing with other plants, sulfur is also used for cough. Compounded with another plant, it is also used for treating Tinea nigra (Am: quaqucha). Another application is in the treatment of syphilitic conditions.

Although employed not in the traditional sense, a number of other substances, including arsenic, mercury, and salts of gold and bismuth were used in the Leprosarium of Harar in the 1930's.

Comments:

Rationalizing the use of the above substances in Ethiopian traditional healthcare is a difficult exercise. Some of them may prove to be fatally toxic when used inappropriately, while others may require fine-tuning of the respective doses to derive any therapeutic benefits. Yet, a few of the uses may fall in the realm of magico-medical or simple psychological beliefs as in the case of galena and gold, which are also used for acquiring wealth. Some minerals may have inherent healing properties.

Alum (aluminum sulfate) is known to have astringent (protein-precipitant) effect, thus perhaps aiding in the healing of wounds. Copper is a mineral supplement that---when taken in trace amounts---helps in the prevention of cardiovascular (heart) diseases, anemia, to boost immunity, and for treating arthritis. Red mercuric sulfide (known as cinnabar) occurs in nature, and may possess antibacterial activity. Sulfur has been used for a long time for the treatment of acne (Am: chifta, bigur?), as a shampoo for dandruff (Am: for'ofor). Arsenic triioxide used to find application for treating dermatitis (inflammation of the skin). Elemental sulfur has scabicidal (Am: le i'kek) properties.

Several of the minerals used in traditional healthcare in Ethiopia may be readily available in various parts of the country, while a few of them might have originated from outside. One wonders if some of the effects noted above have any relevance to the application of these substances in Ethiopian traditional medicine. It is also important to note that while organic molecules have structural diversity and complexity, and are thus a rich storehouse of medicinal agents, inorganic substances on the other hand, especially simple mineral substances, lack these important features, and hence are not a good source of therapeutic agents.

In sum, a few of the mineral substances employed in Ethiopian traditional medicine may have some science behind their uses. However, the use of mercury, lead, and arsenic in indigenous healthcare should be discouraged, considering their extreme toxicities.

Disclaimer: Do not try the above remedies on your own, without advice from a qualified and licensed health professional.

References and Suggested Readings:

Abebe, W. (1984). Traditional pharmaceutical practice in Gondar region, Northwestern Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 11: 33-47

Abebe, W. (1986). A survey of prescriptions used in traditional medicine in Gondar region, Northwestern Ethiopia: General pharmaceutical practice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 18, 147-165.

Abebe, D. and Ahadu, A. (1993). Medicinal Plants and Enigmatic Health Practices in Northern Ethiopia. BSPE: Addis Ababa

Pankhurst, E. (1990). An Introduction to the Medical History of Ethiopia. The Red Sea Press: Trenton, New Jersey.

Zewdu, M. and Demissie, A. (2001). Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia. Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research: Addis Ababa.

Blogger's Note: On May 5, 1941 forces led by Emperor Haile Selassie and Brigadier General  Sanders entered Addis Ababa in victory after Fascist Italian forces in the Ethiopian capital fled or surrendered. Around the same time, a much larger force of Italian forces led by none other than the Duke of Aosta who was named Viceroy of Ethiopia after Grazziani, were engaged in a fierce battle with Allied forces led by British high ranking officers but was largely comprised of Indians as well as South Africans. Since the involvement & sacrifice of Indians and other nationals in the liberation of Eritrea & parts of Ethiopia is a subject not much known by present day generation Ethiopians/Eritreans, I decided to reprint excerpts from a book written by Indian military historian. 
In the late 1980s when I was in India I had a chance to meet a retired Colonel who told me that he wrote about his brigade's history including their role in the liberation of  Eritrea/Ethiopia. He brought me a voluminous book to read what he wrote and I was able to make copies of some of the pages. Since the meeting back in late 1980s was brief and I have lost contact, I was searching the internet for means of obtaining the book and order a copy for my collection. Thanks to the efforts of the staff of HyperWar Foundation, the glorious story of Indians and others in the Ethiopian highlands is transcribed and reprinted on the Internet. The story starts from the day the Allied forces left Asmara and march south toward Addis Ababa on April 2, 1941 and end on May 20, 1941, the day the Duke of Aosta along with his troops surrendered at Ambalaghi.


[Excerpt from: The Official history of the Indian Armed Forces in the Second world War - The East African Campaign. By Bisheshwar Prasad.]

The Duke of Aosta leaving Amba Alagi with British generals and staff officers after his surrender.

The Capture of Amba Alagi
After the capture of Massawa, the two main Italian centres of resistance left in Northern Ethiopia were Amba Alagi and Gondar. The remnants of Italian armies from Eritrea had retreated along the two main roads from Asmara to these areas, and for some time previously the Italians had also been preparing a defensive position to hold Toselli Pass. Gondar had always been a big military station, the centre of the Italian military organization in the country north and west of Lake Tana. On the other side, at this time commitments elsewhere had made it imperative for General Wavell to withdraw as many forces as possible from Eritrea. The policy laid down by him was that no major operations should be undertaken in Eritrea and Northern Ethiopia which would interfere with the withdrawal of troops to the Middle East. Nevertheless, though the Italian forces which had withdrawn southwards were no longer a menace to the Sudan and though they had little chance of staging a counter-offensive to recapture Eritrea, their continued presence in the country was a source of possible future trouble. It was desirable therefore that they should be eliminated.  
Pursuit South of Asmara
On 2 April, after the fall of Asmara a Flit Force was formed for pursuing the Italians south of Asmara. It consisted of the following troops:--

Central India Horse
1 Motor Machine Gun Group Sudan Defence Force
A Troop Light Artillery Battery (SDF)
Det Sappers (Sufficient for three mine-clearing parties).

This force was to pursue the Italians and prevent them from moving on Addis Ababa and to determine their strength and locations on the Asmara-Addis Ababa and Asmara-Gondar roads.¹
The Commander Flit Force left Asmara at 1200 hours on 2 April with 1 Motor Machine Gun Group with the object of reaching Adowa the same evening. Another column of Flit Force consisting of Central India Horse was directed along the Decamere-Saganeiti-Adi Caieh road. 1 Motor Machine Gun Group, in advancing towards Adowa made contact with the British force operating in the Arresa area, which had also followed up the Italians on their withdrawal. At Adi Ugri an Italian camp for prisoners of war was found and 187 prisoners were released. The Italians at Adi Ugri were apprehensive of rioting and asked for British help and protection.
Central India Horse advanced against slight opposition. On 3 April it was ambushed at a place eighteen kilometres north of Adi Caieh. It was not found to be a serious obstacle. 47 men and 2 heavy machine guns were captured. Although some road blocks were met on the way, Central India Horse continued to advance. It reached Adi Caieh at 1225 hours. By evening it had passed Senafe and spent the night three miles south of that place. Also, Headquarters Flit Force with 1 Motor Machine Gun Group continued to advance on the Adowa road and Adowa was reached the same day. From there Headquarters Flit Force with one company of Motor Machine Gun Group moved to Adigrat which was reached at 1700 hours. The rest of the Motor Machine Gun Group was left at Adowa. When Indian troops entered Adigrat, 140 Colonial Battalion was on the point of leaving in lorries and the whole of it was captured. 

Addis Ababa Road
Central India Horse reached Adigrat on 4 April at 0755 hours and made contact with Headquarters Flit Force. Flit Force continued its operations and its locations during the night of 4/5 April were as follows:--

Headquarters Flit Force Central India Horse (less one squadron) 1 Motor Machine Gun Group (less one company)	}	Adigrat
One company 1 Motor Machine Gun Group	}	Adowa
One squadron Central India Horse	}	Ten miles north of Quiha.

 On 5 April Central India Horse Squadron entered Quiha without opposition. The remainder of the regiment also arrived there at 1040 hours. Here reports were received that the Italians were preparing for a final stand at Amba Alagi. Next day one squadron Central India Horse moved south but it could not get very far being held up by artillery fire and a road block three miles south of Mai Mescic and thirty miles south of Quiha.
 On 6 April orders were received for the relief of Central India Horse by 1 Horse. Central India Horse was ordered to revert to the command of the 4th Indian Division. This relief was completed by 0900 hours on 8 April. Central India Horse moved back the same day to rejoin the 4th Indian Division. 

Gondar Road
On 9 April, 1 Motor Machine Gun Group which had advanced unopposed along the Gondar road reported a series of undefended road blocks. The advance went on slowly and by 13 April the forward troops reached Adi Arcai. At this stage 2 Motor Machine Gun Group was ordered to join 1 Motor Machine Gun Group. On 14 April, the leading elements were ambushed in the area of Debivar. The Italians were holding Wolchefit Pass² about three miles to the south of Debivar in some strength. It was difficult to estimate their numbers at this stage. But some indication was available from their having engaged British and Indian troops with rifle and machine gun fire and also with artillery of several calibres. They had also used Breda anti-aircraft guns against British aircraft flying over the area. The ground in the area of the pass was very difficult, vehicles not being able to get off the road at all.

SITUATION ON 15 APRIL

 5th Indian Division
 The forward troops were in contact with the main Italian positions at Wolchefit Pass on the Gondar road and Toselli Pass, near Amba Alagi, on the Addis Ababa road. The Italians were holding both these naturally strong positions in considerable strength, and it was realized by General Officer Commanding 5th Indian Division that the forcing of them would be a major operation, outside the scope of the light pursuit forces in contact with the Italians at both these places. These forces were therefore ordered to consolidate the ground gained and to keep contact with the Italians. In the meantime, plans for further operations to reduce these last Italian fortresses were considered and reconnaissances were made to gauge the exact Italian strength.  



East Africa Force
Advancing from the south the East Africa Force had captured Harar on 25 March, Dire Dawa on 29 March and Addis Ababa on 6 April. After this event it had sent the 1st South African Brigade northwards. On 15 April, this brigade was in contact with an Italian
force holding Combolcia Pass, to the south of Dessie. The pass was captured on 22 April and Dessie on 26 April.

Patriot Forces of Emperor Haille Selassie
The emperor of Ethiopia had forced the Italians out of Debra Markos, which was occupied on 6 April. After that little remained to be done by his forces. Addis Ababa had fallen on the same day and the Italian forces were either deserting in large numbers or were on the move towards Dessie and Amba Alagi. All the local chiefs, those who had helped the Patriot Forces as well as those who had sided with the Italians, were hurrying to pay respects to the Emperor. Such little mopping up, as was necessary, was in hand.
By 15 April the Italian air force had been forced away from nearly all its bases and airfields. Combolcia, the last base, was to fall a few days later. There was then little left of the Italian air force.

Forces Available
The forces available for operations against Amba Alagi and Gondar and for internal security duties in the whole of Eritrea were:--

5th Indian Division
1Motor Machine Gun Group (SDF)
2Motor Machine Gun Group (SDF)
51 Commando
One battery 68 Medium Regiment (RA)
Two Companies Mounted Infantry (SDF).

These forces were not sufficient for simultaneous operations against both Gondar and Amba Alagi.³ One of them had to be taken first. Amba Alagi was chosen as success there would open the road to Addis Ababa and allow the transfer of the forces to the Middle East through Massawa. The task of attacking Amba Alagi was entrusted to the 5th Indian Divis
ion.

Topography
Amba Alagi has an altitude of about 11,282 feet above sea level. The road from Eritrea into Ethiopia crossed a spur of this mountain at Toselli Pass (also called Alagi Pass) which was defended by a fort. The approach from the north was steep and winding and for some miles the road worked its way through a narrow valley, overlooked on both sides by commanding heights. The general run of the high ground, which culminated at Amba Alagi was north-west to south-east. North-west of Amba Alagi itself is a long range with a number of peaks on it. These were named as Little Alagi, Middle Hill, Elephant, Pyramid and Sandy Ridge. All these peaks were prominent features of tactical importance. South-west from Amba Alagi ran a narrow ridge culminating in a hill. These were called Castle Ridge and Castle Hill respectively. Almost due north of Amba Alagi and Little Alagi was Bald Hill, a high flat-topped feature with precipitous sides. South-east of Amba Alagi and on the other side of the pass, two prominent hills, Triangle and Gumsa, intervened between Toselli and Falaga Passes.
The road over Toselli Pass was a good all-weather, graded main road. The road to Falaga Pass took off from the east of the main road about thirty kilometres north of Amba Alagi. This road was in a bad condition, just good enough for one-way motor traffic for some distance beyond Debub. This was the route the Italians had used themselves in the final stages of the Ethiopian war in 1936. Just opposite of where the Falaga road left the main track another track led to the south-west through the hills as far as Socota. This was practicable for mechanical transport with difficulty, but there was no road or track from Socota eastwards, to rejoin the main road.
  
Italian Strength
Deserters reported that the Italian garrison at Amba Alagi was composed of four Italian and two Colonial battalions. Their total strength was given as 4,000 Italians and 1,000 Colonials. Although Italian propaganda had suggested a total figure of 30,000 the highest suggested by British informers was 7,000. Of the Colonial units 25th Colonial Battalion was believed to be one of them.
 On 21 April, 4 Motor Machine Gun Company (SDF) went out on a three-day patrol to ascertain whether Falaga pass could be used for an operation against Italians' right flank and rear. It was also to report on the possibility of outflanking the Amba Alagi position still further to the east, by a force on wheels, possibly moving via Debub on to Corbetta and Mai Ceu. The report made at the end of the reconnaissance stated that without a great deal of improvement the route was not suitable for a force of any size on wheels.
 On 24 April, General Officer Commanding 5th Indian Division Major-General A. G. O. M. Mayne in an appreciation of the situation stated that, in view of the requirements of internal security and the length and vulnerability of the Allied line of communication, it was not possible to maintain a powerful striking force in the forward area. He intended the following force to be concentrated forward:--

Advanced Headquarters 5th Indian Division
29th Indian Infantry Brigade
3 Royal Garhwal Rifles
51 Commando
28 Field Regiment
144 Field Regiment
233 Medium Battery
41 Light Anti-Aircraft Battery (less one troop)
1 Horse
1 Motor Machine Gun Group
A Troop Light Artillery Battery SR (Sudan Defence Force)
2 Field Company
20 Field Company.

In the air, 237 Squadron was to be moved forward with seventeen aircraft, including three bombers. But as there were no all-weather advanced landing grounds, the value of this force was to depend on the weather to a considerable extent. Transport also was short and it was necessary to dump both for the battle and maintenance. General Officer Commanding 5th Indian Division did not consider it possible for the above-mentioned force to be concentrated before 30 April. After that reconnaissance and detailed planning would take some time so that no major operation could be launched before 3 May. He feared that contingencies of weather, numerous road blocks and other unforeseen hindrances might delay the operation even further. On the prospects of exploitation he found that if the Italians broke up and started withdrawing, the lack of transport on the British side would be a serious handicap and would make a pursuit of the Italian force in any strength quite impossible.⁴
In the meantime, steps were taken to improve the position. On 26 April 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles occupied Sandy Ridge without opposition. The same evening orders were issued for forming a column consisting of 1 Horse, 51 Commando, A Troop Light Artillery Battery SR, and one section Field Company.⁵ This force was to develop a strong feint against Falaga Pass and, if possible, to outflank the Italian positions at Amba Alagi and still further round the east.
1 Horse advanced along the road towards Falaga Pass on 27 April but was held up by a second road block. Pickets were placed to the south-west of the ridge in the face of Italian artillery fire, and work to clear the road block commenced. On 29 April a track for one way traffic was cleared and a reconnaissance patrol was sent through towards Debub. Debub was reached and found unoccupied on 30 April.
On 28 April General Officer Commanding 5th Indian Division reviewed the situation again and formulated a plan of attack on the Italian positions. In the south, Dessie had been captured by East Africa Force on 26 April and Sudan Defence Force and Patriot Forces had occupied Socota on the same day. He estimated Italian forces at Amba Alagi at 5,000 men, with thirty guns in post. Having lost Dessie and being marooned between that place and Amba Alagi, their stock of food and war material was expected to be limited. The Patriot Forces having obtained a notable success at Socota were expected henceforth to harass the Italians on all sides. General Mayne thought that the Italians might be impressed by the comparative strength of British and Indian troops concentrated on their front and decide to surrender. On the other hand, he also considered the possibility of the Italians deciding to fight. The Axis successes in the Balkans and Libya and the exaggerated accounts put out by the Axis propaganda machine were expected to encourage the Italians in their resistance in Ethiopia and tone up their morale. Taking both these possibilities into account, General Mayne was inclined to believe that the Italians might not surrender at once. But once they were convinced of the overwhelming strength of British and Indian troops they might decide to do so. There was always a possibility of their holding on till the opening of the main attack. But, at any rate, he did not expect the Italians to fight with the same determination as at Keren.

Italian Positions
 The Italian positions extended from the west of Pyramid (To-gora 663437) to the Falaga Pass road. They were thus extended over a front of ten to twelve miles, a wide frontage for some five thousand men to hold. No information was available about any artificial defences that they might have constructed, but their natural position was very strong. General Mayne assessed its value for defence as twice that of Keren. Assault on any point in the Italian line would have had to go up the precipitous hills, over long distances from truck-head and under Italian observation. It would certainly have been arduous. But it was also certain that the Italians were not strong at all points along their very extended line, and Mayne hoped, by deception and feints, to find a fairly soft spot for the major ' assault to go in. The Italians were presumed to hold the forward posts lightly, as had been their practice, and to trust to counterattacks by their reserves in the event of a breakthrough by the Indian troops. It was also expected that they would be anxious about the centre of their position and also about their right flank, Falaga Pass. On the whole, Mayne had hoped to gain a measure of surprise for his attack by keeping the Italians in a state of uncertainty over a front of more than ten miles. His plan of attack was to start a demonstration against Falaga Pass at once which was to be developed into a fully convincing feint on D minus 1 day. This operation was to be undertaken by Fletcher Force⁶ consisting of

Headquarters
1 Horse
One Troop Field Artillery (25 pdrs)
A Troop Light Artillery Battery SR
51 Commando
One Company 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment
One Section Sappers
One Troop medium artillery in support for a limited period.

Secondly he wanted a feint attack under strong artillery support astride the main road and in the direction of Amba Alagi. It was to be staged in the afternoon of D' minus 1 Day. The main attack on the Italian left was to be launched at dawn with maximum artillery support by the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade, except one troop field artillery and A Troop Light Artillery Battery remaining under command of Fletcher Force. The movement of battalions to battle positions (in Sandy Ridge Area) was to start on 30 April. Attack was to go in at first light on 3 May.
This plan was discussed with General Platt who approved of it and consequently orders were issued to implement it. The only change from the outline plan was that another battalion from the 10th Indian Infantry Brigade was not used for the feint against Toselli Pass. 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles was detailed to carry out this task. D Day for the main attack had originally been planned for 3 May but owing to transport and maintenance difficulties it was finally fixed for 4 May at 0415 hours.

OPERATIONS

Falaga Pass Sector
On 1 May, 51 Commando with one company less one platoon 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment attacked and captured Commando Hill after a long and difficult night march. Throughout the day hostile artillery, mortars and machine guns fired on British and Indian troops on the feature.
Wireless Hill, a feature to the east of Commando Hill, was captured on the morning of 2 May. The situation on this front appeared to be very promising. Further advance was made on 3 May and, by the evening, the leading elements had reached a position astride the track one mile north of Falaga Pass. The same day 4 Motor Machine Gun Company carried out a successful raid round the east flank of the Italian position and shot up a party of about 30 Italians who appeared to be in conference.
On the night of 3/4 May an attack on Falaga Pass was put in. The feature named Tongue on the west of the pass was captured, but the attack on the pass itself was held up about two hundred yards from the objective. Heavy fighting went on for three hours after which Indian troops withdrew. In the early hours "of the morning on 4 May the Italians counter-attacked Indian positions but were repulsed. Thus the operation in the Falaga Pass sector had been successful. It had not only contained the troops on the east of the main road but also succeeded in drawing some Italian troops from the west.
  
Toselli Pass Sector
The objective allotted to 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles was the line of the village Enda Medani Alem. The attack started at 1648 hours on 3 May and the battalion was able to secure its objective. The right forward company then advanced up the spur leading up to Bald Hill. This was found to be very strongly held. The company, therefore, withdrew to the line of the original objective.

The Main Attack
The 29th Indian Infantry Brigade was to capture the line--Pyramid-Whale Back-Elephant--on 4 May and then to exploit towards Amba Alagi. The brigade was to attack with 6 Royal Frontier Force Rifles leading, directed on Pyramid. 3/2 Punjab was to pass through 6 Royal Frontier Force Rifles and capture Whale Back and Elephant.The attack opened with artillery fire at 0415 hours. The leading battalion followed up close to the barrage. Advancing at great speed it completely surprised the Italians and Pyramid was taken by 0545 hours. Passing through the leading battalion, 3/2 Panjab made for Whale Back and Elephant. The whole of the Whale Back feature was captured by 0635 hours, by which time the advance on Elephant was well on its way. The top of the feature was reached at 0720 hours and the ridge came into the hands of the Indian troops by 0735 hours. Reconnaissance at this stage revealed that only a narrow undulating ridge, completely devoid of cover and commanded by Bald Hill and Amba Alagi, joined Elephant and Middle Hill features. It was therefore decided to postpone further attacks until the early hours of the morning on 5 May. Throughout the rest of the day the Italian positions were engaged by British aircraft and artillery. Ten Italian officers and fifty-eight other ranks and seventy Colonial other ranks were captured. They included the Italian commander of the western sector and his staff who had in their possession orders and plans for the defence of To-gora Pass. Indian casualties during the day in the main attack amounted to one Viceroy's Commissioned Officer and one Indian other rank killed and nineteen Indian other ranks wounded.
 On 5 May, the forces carrying out the feint attacks in Falaga Pass and the main road sectors continued to exert pressure on their respective fronts. In the sector of the main attack 3/2 Punjab attacked Middle Hill at 0415 hours, and, after a fight with bomb and bayonet, the feature was taken by 0445 hours. 1 Worcesters then passed through and attacked Little Alagi. Wire was met and the battalion came under intense machine gun fire from Little Alagi and Bald Hill. It asked for artillery support but its further attempts to get forward were not successful.
 At 0930 hours-General Officer Commanding 5th Indian Division ordered the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade to hold Middle Hill and to withdraw 1 Worcesters to Elephant. The route for the latter relieved a detachment of the former on Commando Hill. After dark, the same day, 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment sent out a platoon to get on to Dead Tree Hill from the east.⁷ This was to be accomplished without the Italians coming to know of it. About the same time a mortar was moved up to a position just under the east bank on Wireless Hill and laid to fire on Round Hill at 1600 hours. However the Italians opened machine-gun fire at about 1545 hours on Furze Hill. Thereupon Indian troops on Dead Tree Hill opened fire in return. Red and Round Hills were finally attacked and captured on 8 May. On the capture of these features the country beyond was found to be very complicated. An operation had been planned for 51 Commando to raid Italian guns in the area of the Falaga Pass. After a reconnaissance of the area this plan was amended. In the meantime, harassing fire on Italian positions on Rump and Step was kept up, which was so effective that these features surrendered at 1500 hours.
 At this stage it appeared that the Italians had withdrawn from the Falaga Pass. This was reported to Headquarters 5th Indian Division who ordered the infantry of Fletcher Force to make for Mt. Gumsa and the motorised part of the force to try to get through to the Atzala Valley and so behind the Italian positions. There were, however, some immediate tasks for Fletcher Force to complete. 51 Commando was ordered to advance direct on the Pack Battery Col (a gun position in the Falaga Pass) during the night of 8/9 May. It was to be followed by 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment which was asked to send one company on to Tongue at dawn on 9 May.
 The night of 8/9 May was bitterly cold and in moving from Step towards Pack Battery Col 51 Commando lost direction in the clouds. By the time it and 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment reached Pack Battery Col the Italians had abandoned the position and withdrawn. In the morning one company of 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment went to Tongue which it had mopped up by 0900 hours. During the night of 7/8 May 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles demonstrated against the centre of the Italian position and the Italians were compelled to open fire in defence.
  

The attack was put in according to plan.⁸ Centre Hill was captured at 0515 hours and Khaki Hill at 0545 hours on 8 May. A Company attacking Castle Hill reached the southern end of the objective at 0530 hours after a very difficult climb. The Italians on the top of the hill displayed a white flag. When however Indian troops had almost reached the top to take it over and make the garrison prisoners, the Italians met them with a shower of bombs which caused a number of casualties. An attack was put in after this and the south end of Castle Hill was captured by 0600 hours. The Italians counter-attacked immediately, but were thrown back with heavy losses. They followed up with another counterattack with stronger forces and supported by intense and accurate mortar and machine gun fire. Indian troops held the ground resolutely. However, the company had to withdraw in the end after it had run out of ammunition. It moved back to Centre Hill.
 Khaki Hill was a long way from British positions and its maintenance proved very difficult. There was also a danger of its being isolated in the event of a counter-attack. Therefore at 0855 hours the Commander 29th Indian Infantry Brigade ordered the troops on it to be withdrawn.
 Centre Hill was completely dominated by the Italian positions on Castle Hill. But in view of the expected advance of the East Africa Force the Commander 29th Indian Infantry Brigade decided to hold the ground gained.⁹
 Throughout the rest of the day and the night of 8/9 May the Italian machine guns on Castle South were active as a result of which 6 Royal Frontier Force Rifles sustained some casualties. On the night of 9/10 May, 1 Worcesters relieved 6 Royal Frontier Force Rifles on Centre Hill. A certain amount of confusion was caused by an Italian counter-attack in the midst of the relief. However, defensive fire was called for and the attack was repulsed. 6 Royal Frontier Force Rifles moved back in the area of Fin Col to the northwest of Whale Back.
  
East Africa Force
Having captured Dessie on 26 April, East Africa Force had sent the 1st South African Brigade, with some Patriot Forces under command, in pursuit towards the north. The brigade had to cover 175 miles to reach Toselli Pass. By 7 May, Alomata, seventy-seven miles from Toselli Pass, had been captured and the advance from the south was held up at a road block ten miles to the north of that place. The same evening Mai Ceu, twenty-eight miles from Toselli Pass, was reached. The next day, the leading elements were moving towards E Atzala Cheros which was only eight miles south of Toselli Pass. The brigade came under the command of the 5th Indian Division at 1430 hours on 9 May.
 Fletcher Force
On the night of 8/9, 51 Commando had occupied Pack Battery Col, which the Italians had abandoned before British and Indian troops could get there. 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment had secured the feature called Tongue overlooking Falaga Pass by 0900 hours on 9 May. British and Indian troops on this feature had been fired upon by Italian machine guns during the day on 9 May from a feature called Four Bumps. That evening, 3 Royal Frontier Force Regiment was ordered to capture this feature during the morning of 10 May.
 On the capture of Falaga Pass, it was found that the road through it was not complete and that it ended abruptly on reaching the top of the pass. It was therefore not possible to send motorised units through to the Atzala Valley. 1 Horse was ordered to the main road and its place was taken by 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles on 9 May.
  
The Investment of Amba Alagi on all Sides
 On 10 May the leading battalion of 1st South African Brigade reached Mai Ceu and the next day the whole brigade less one battalion arrived there. On the morning of 11 May, 1st Royal Natal Carbineers reached the top of the Pass Di Aiba, from which a clear view of Amba Alagi, some eight miles away, was obtained. An armoured car patrol was sent forward to contact the Patriots operating in the Sasat area in the hills to the south of Toselli Pass.
 On 11 May, the General Officer Commanding 5th Indian Division flew over the Italian positions to Alomata, to explain the situation to the Commander 1st South African Brigade. In the afternoon they went to the top of the Pass Di Aiba, and carried out a reconnaissance. On the east, the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade was operating towards Twin Pyramids, over extremely difficult knife-edge crests, and with a line of communication dependent on pack-transport forward of Falaga Pass. The 29th Indian Infantry Brigade was holding Middle and Centre Hills. British artillery had direct observation on Toselli Fort and was pounding the Italians unmercifully.
1st South African Brigade was ordered to occupy Triangle and Khaki Hill and gain touch with the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade on the west and the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade on the east. It was thus to complete the investment of Amba Alagi. The Patriots were to be withdrawn from the road up Toselli Pass and were to operate on the right flank of the 1st South African Brigade.
  
Khaki Hill
On the night of 11/12 May, 1st Royal Natal Carbineers occupied Khaki Hill. The artillery of the South African Brigade was deployed in the area of Khaki Hill and Pass Di Aiba on 12 May. This put the Italian artillery in a most difficult position, because the guns deployed on the southern slopes of Amba Alagi, against the 5th Indian Division, were exposed to the view of the artillery observation posts of the South African Brigade.
On 12 May, patrols from 1st Royal Natal Carbineers gained touch with 1 Worcesters occupying Centre Hill. The same day the telephone line from the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade to 1 Worcesters was extended to Headquarters 1st South African Brigade.
  
Triangle
The position of the Italians on Triangle (Mt. Corarsi) was very strong. Their men were well concealed in caves and trenches on ground overlooking the approaches. 'No Man's Land' was a fairly open slope ending in a cliff at the top, rising thirty feet with the Italians entrenched above it. There was no actual position on the summit of Triangle but an anti-aircraft gun was dug in there. 1 Transvaal Scottish was detailed to hold itself in readiness to move on the night of 12/13 May against Triangle.
 12 May was spent in reconnaissance and planning. The Commander Fletcher Force flew over to Mai Ceu and visited the Commander 1st South African Brigade. They agreed that the South Africans should move up the south-east spur of Triangle. The Commander Fletcher Force on his part undertook to support this advance as best as he could, either by an advance on his own front or by fire. While these matters were being discussed the Patriots entirely without warning to Indian forces first stormed Pyramid East and then Pyramid West. Their line of approach was up the precipitous southern slopes of the two Pyramids. The Italians put up a stout resistance on Pyramid West, but were overwhelmed. The Patriots then attempted to pass over to Triangle. The ridge from Pyramid West to Triangle was barred by two double apron fences of barbed wire and by a mass of fascines, all covered by machine gun posts, of which the nearest, White Rock, was not more than fifty yards away. British artillery did its best to knock them out, but they were too well dug in to be seriously affected. The Patriots failed in their very gallant effort to cross this heavily defended defile. They were forced to withdraw to Pyramid West where those on the north side were engaged by pack guns from Amba Alagi and those on the south by machine guns on Triangle. They had therefore to fall further back and took shelter on the lower slopes between the two Pyramids.
In order to make certain that the Italians did not reoccupy them, one company 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles occupied Twin Pyramids, without opposition, on the night of 12/13 May.
On 13 May, 1st South African Brigade occupied its first objective, Wade's Post, a feature on the lower slopes of south-east spur of Triangle. The same day the Patriots made another attempt to get to the top of Triangle, this time up the steep sides of the feature and not along the defile from the direction of the Pyramids. Their attempt failed, but it helped the South Africans in getting on to their objective. After the capture of Wade's Post, 1st South African Brigade continued its advance up the hill at about 1600 hours on 13 May. The second objective was a ridge further up the slope. Heavy rain, however, checked the advance and the objective was not reached.
On 14 May the rain had stopped before the morning and the advance was resumed at first light. A deep gully about two thousand yards from the top was successfully crossed and the advance continued. Artillery fire made many Italians leave cover and they were caught by the machine guns in the open. By midday 1 Transvaal Scottish was nearing the summit. The Italians put in a counterattack at this juncture and African troops were forced back to the foot of the cliff. Further artillery support was arranged and, after heavy fighting, the leading troops were checked to the south and south-east of the Triangle.
3 Royal Garhwal Rifles on Twin Pyramids had been joined by large numbers of Patriots. 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles supported the attack of the South Africans on Triangle with machine gun fire. The Patriots once again tried to assault Triangle over the narrow ridge leading from Pyramid West. However, they were held up by the wire and machine guns on the north-east corner of Triangle. The machine guns were finally silenced by British artillery in the evening and it was planned to blow a gap in the wire with Bangalore torpedoes (a type of explosive charge) during the night.
On the night of 14/15 May the wire on the ridge between Pyramid West and Triangle was blown successfully. The Italians abandoned Triangle during the night and withdrew to Amba Alagi.
 A patrol from 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles found Triangle abandoned at dawn on 15 May. Patrols from 1st South African Brigade were also up soon after. The feature was occupied by 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles and the South Africans immediately took up operations to secure the ridge leading to the main road. Heavy fire was encountered from Amba Alagi and Toselli Fort and the advance was postponed until the night of 15/16 May.
Amba Alagi was now invested on all sides, on the north and east by the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade, on the south by the South Africans, and on the west by the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade. 1 Horse patrols moving up from the north in the area of the main road occupied Cannefat to the north of Twin Pyramids on the evening of 15 May and made contact with 3 Royal Garhwal Rifles.
  
The Final Assault
 After the fall of Triangle the Italians were holding only Amba Alagi, Toselli Pass, Castle Ridge, Little Alagi and Bald Hill. An operation was planned in which the 1st South African Brigade was to attack Toselli Fort with a feint preceding the main attack, by the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade. The 9th Indian Infantry Brigade was to support the 1st South African Brigade and protect its right flank. Owing to the necessity of securing the ridge running down to the main road from Triangle and the difficulties of administration it was not possible to stage this attack before 17 May which was fixed as a provisional D Day.

The Surrender

At 0730 hours on 16 May the first Italian envoys arrived to ask if the General Officer Commanding was prepared to receive an envoy from the Duke of Aosta, the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief of the Italian forces in East Africa to discuss terms of surrender. This was agreed to and after discussions the Italians agreed to surrender. They laid down their arms at 1200 hours on 19 May. They were granted the honours of war. A guard of honour consisting of representative sub-units from all units presented arms as the defeated Italians filed down the road to lay down their arms and pass into captivity. The next day, the Duke of Aosta personally surrendered with his staff to General Mayne.
 Thus the battle of Amba Alagi in the heart of Ethiopia was won. Amba Alagi was a strong natural position and was considered by the Italians to be impregnable. It had been chosen by the Duke of Aosta a.s the stronghold on which to make a final stand. The Italian forces were surrounded on all sides and their power broken by a large pincer movement the northern arm of which consisted of forces based on the Sudan and the southern arm of forces based on Kenya under General Cunningham. The Indian troops coming from the north after the victory of Keren arrived on the scene first. The South African troops coming from the south had much further to travel and had to subdue the fortress of Dessie on the way. So the battle was first joined by the Indian troops alone. After a week's heavy fighting in mountainous country they had destroyed the Italian forward troops and forced their way, on the north, the east, and the west, to within striking distance of Italian innermost fortress defences. It was at this stage that the South African forces reached the battle-field. It fell to them to storm their way up precipitous heights against stiff opposition and to close the ring on the south. After the circle was closed the only question was how long it would take to overcome Italian opposition. As the net was tightened and the bombardment by air and artillery became more concentrated, the morale of Italian forces deteriorated rapidly and their surrender came soon after.
 After the fall of Amba Alagi the remaining centres of Italian resistance were in the Galla-Sidama area in the south-west and in the Gondar area in the north-west. Some brilliant operations by the African divisions, assisted by a Belgian force from the Sudan resulted in the complete liquidation of all Italian resistance in the south-west of Ethiopia while the Italian outposts in the Gondar area were also cleared. The Gondar area itself was allowed to remain for the time being in Italian hands as it was considered to have no further influence on the operations and as General Wavell was anxious to transfer troops back to the main theatre in Egypt as rapidly as possible. The 4th Indian Division had been withdrawn to Egypt immediately after the fall of Keren. The 5th Indian Division followed after the fall of Amba Alagi.

The prisoners of war in Enda Medani Alem make a huge dump of arms

Italian prisoners of war march down from Toselli Fort to the bottom of Tosseli pass at Enda Medani Alem

 During the operations by regular troops in the south and in the north, the west centre of Ethiopia was being cleared by some daring operations of Colonel Wingate's small regular force of Sudanese troops and bands of Ethiopian Patriots assisted by British officers.
The Emperor with Brigadier Sandford followed the operations of these troops and made a formal entry into his capital of Addis Ababa on 5 May.
Though Italian forces remained in Ethiopia even after the fall of Amba Alagi and kept two African divisions occupied all through the summer, Ethiopia had been freed of Italian domination. Indian troops which had played such an important part in the offensive in this area were now withdrawn in bulk to the more important theatres of war in the north. The British attention was now directed towards their north-western frontier and to the possibility of an advance by German and Italian troops from Libya against any of their communications along the Nile or west from Khartoum.

For more photos and battle-front maps as well as other illustrations check on the following website: http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/India/EAfrica/EAfrica-10.html

Blogger's Note:Some may have seen this portrait on my facebook profile and wondered whose portrait is this? or what is the story behind this portrait? The guest blog entry I am posting today is a report of an informal lecture by an art historian who attempted to provide an answer to that question. The lecture was a result of an initiative that I proposed as a member of the now defunct Ethiopian Biographical Resources Center (EBRC). Other members of EBRC agreed and we had our what we called the 1st biography lecture which was held at Smithsonian Institute's National Museum of African Art Library and as you may have guessed it was on the life and works of pioneer artist Agegnehu Engida. Interestingly, the informal lecture was not the usual biography lecture with most facts of the subject's life very much known. It was rather an attempt to construct biographical details by filling out some gaps in what is mostly unknown details of the pioneer artist's life, based on some works or documents found. The starting point was the portrait you see above. This portrait was given allegedly by Emperor Haile Selassie to a one-time American dignitary . If I recall correctly, this portrait ended up in Smithsonian Institute not long before the lecture through donation from the dignitary or family members of the dignitary. Unfortunately, the portrait was not signed, and the donor do not know who the artist is nor the subject. Hence it fell on Ms. Janet Stanley, the Librarian of National Museum of African Art Library to find out more about this portrait. You may not know this but librarians are like detectives. At times what they get from library patrons in this case from a donor is just one and only clue to build on. That is exactly what Ms. Stanley did. While searching for literature on Agegnehu Engida she found a book and saw the portrait in a balck-and-white photo of Agegnehu Engida along his works. After establishing this fact, she asked some renowned Ethiopian artists and other art scholars as to who the lady might be? As you will read from the report, initially there were some suggestions, that this could be among the portraits of Empress Mennen which the artist have made as a palace portrait artist. Most imporatntly, she was in contact with the late Professor Stan Chojnacki, the renowned expert on Ethiopian traditional art and the art historian/librarian who founded the Institute of Ethiopian Studies Museum of the then Haile Selassie I University. He was living then in Canada, near Ottawa and when she knew he will be visiting Washington, DC area she invited him to do the talk on what they have discovered about the portrait in particular and Agegnehu's life in general. After having said this much about the background, let me take you to the guest blog and the report which is posted here upon permission of the writer Ms. Janet Stanley.

On November 2, 1930 (Tiqimt 23, 1923) Crown Prince Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia with the crown name Qedamawi Atse Haile Selassie (Emperor Haile Selassie I). Here are some pages from a document prepared for the coronation ceremony.